The content on this page has not been recently updated, and may no longer be accurate, both with respect to the research it presents and with respect to what it implies about our views and positions. We may update this page if we receive updated information, particularly with regards to program costs.
In a nutshell
This page discusses surgery for the treatment of obstetric fistula. An obstetric fistula is an abnormal opening between the vagina and the bladder or rectum, typically caused by tissue death from prolonged obstructed labor. Obstetric fistula can lead to physical complications and poor psychosocial outcomes.
Based on a rough cost-effectiveness analysis of the intervention, we estimate that surgery to treat obstetric fistula is below the range of cost-effectiveness of programs we would direct funding to. However, several major unanswered questions remain, especially regarding the long-term outcomes of fistula surgery and the moral value of averting fistula burden. Given our uncertainty about this cost-effectiveness estimate, it is possible that new information on the benefits of fistula surgery or its costs could lead us to change our view.
Published: December 2021
Previous versions of this page:
Table of Contents
What is the problem?
An obstetric (or gynecologic) fistula is an abnormal opening between the vagina and the bladder (vesicovaginal fistula) or rectum (rectovaginal fistula), typically caused by prolonged obstructed labor.1 A fistula forms when the sustained pressure of a fetus's presenting part (usually its head) against the mother's pelvic bone cuts off blood flow to soft tissues, which necrotize and form a hole between body cavities. Obstetric fistula causes continuous and uncontrollable leakage of urine and/or feces through the vagina, which can lead to physical complications and poor psychosocial and economic outcomes.2
- Physical complications of fistula can include:3
- Dermatological conditions
- Unpleasant odor
- Constipation
- Psychosocial consequences can include:4
- Divorce and ostracism from familial and social activities
- Depression and other psychological complications
- Decreased economic outcomes
- Additional complications associated with obstructed labor but not caused by fistula (and therefore not ameliorated by fistula surgery) can include:5
- Fetal loss and associated psychosocial consequences, such as mourning
- Reproductive organ damage, such as uterine rupture
- Amenorrhea and loss of fertility
- Neurological damage resulting in weakness in the leg, limb contracture, and foot drop
- Renal damage resulting in decreased kidney function
- Vaginal stenosis and painful intercourse
Obstetric fistula from prolonged labor typically does not occur in countries where women have access to obstetric care and emergency obstetric procedures (such as caesarean section to prevent prolonged labor) through developed health systems.6 Obstetric fistula can be considered one symptom of a larger obstructed labor injury complex.7
Our understanding is that living with obstetric fistula is highly detrimental to well-being. The Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 assigned vesicovaginal fistula a disability weight (a measure of the size of the negative impact of a fistula on a woman's life) of 0.342, similar to the disability weight assigned to moderate dementia (0.377) or the amputation of both arms without treatment (0.383).8
What is the program?
Surgery to repair vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistula is a complex procedure, and surgical method may vary depending on the characteristics of the injury and the experience of the surgeon.9 Fistula surgery generally involves making an incision in the vaginal mucosa around the fistula and the suture of tissue to cover the fistula in either a single or double layer.10 After surgery for vesicovaginal fistula, a transurethral drainage catheter is used for an average of 14 days and high fluid intake is advised. Patients are advised against sexual contact for three months to allow the tissues to heal.11 Postoperative care may also include social reintegration via counseling and life skills training.12
In some cases, surgery is not the most advisable method of fistula management. Some small vesicovaginal fistulas may close spontaneously if managed with catheter use.13 In some cases, the damage is extensive enough that surgery is unlikely to result in improved function, and fistula symptoms may be managed with urinary diversion.14
Organizations that support surgery to repair obstetric fistula include Fistula Foundation, EngenderHealth's Fistula Care Plus program, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Hamlin Fistula Ethiopia, Worldwide Fistula Fund, and Operation Fistula, among others. These organizations conduct the following activities:
- Identifying patients via community outreach efforts and referring and transporting these patients to health facilities for surgery.15
- Funding the training of fistula surgeons.16
- Providing health facilities with equipment needed to perform fistula surgeries,17 for example designing and funding the creation and distribution of fistula repair kits.18
- Funding fistula centers, hospitals, and other partners.19
- Operating fistula centers and hospitals.20
- Providing post-operative support, including physical care, counseling, social reintegration, and life skills training.21
- Funding academic research.22
- Preventing fistula by funding training of OB/GYNs and community health advocates, increasing awareness of fistula and access to family planning, and advocating for policy changes.23
- Researching ways to improve the quality of fistula surgery, for example piloting a pay-for-performance model of fistula surgery.24
- Improving the monitoring and evaluation of fistula surgery, for example by developing a tool to allow surgeons to centrally report data on patients and outcomes.25
Does the program work?
Success of fistula surgery consists of two components:
- Physical surgical success, measured by fistula closure as reported by the surgeon, continence at discharge from the hospital (for example, as measured by a dye test), and long-term continence. The limited available literature on surgical outcomes suggests average surgical success rates of approximately 86% for fistula closure and 70% for continence at discharge.26 We have found insufficient follow-up data to determine long-term continence rates and are uncertain about the degree to which continence at discharge predicts long-term continence.
- Psychosocial life outcomes. We have not seen strong evidence that life outcomes are improved post-surgery, in part due to a lack of follow-up data in this area. Some weak evidence suggests that psychosocial life outcomes may not be entirely dependent on the physical outcome of the surgery.27 Some fistula centers provide post-surgical psychological care or reintegration training; we are uncertain about the effect of these programs on life outcomes of patients.
As part of an evaluation of a fistula organization, we would examine monitoring of patient outcomes, including physical outcomes at discharge and other outcomes if available.
How much does the program cost?
IDinsight, using data from Fistula Foundation for one of its programs, estimated the total cost per surgery completed at $1,169.28 GiveWell funded IDinsight's work on this estimate.29
Cost-effectiveness
We estimate that surgery to treat obstetric fistula is below the range of cost-effectiveness of programs we would direct funding to.30 A back-of-the-envelope cost-effectiveness calculation for this intervention is available here.
Note that our cost-effectiveness analyses are simplified models with significant limitations. We believe that cost-effectiveness estimates such as these should not be taken literally, due to the significant uncertainty around them. We provide these estimates (a) for comparative purposes and (b) because working on them helps us ensure that we are thinking through as many of the relevant issues as possible.
We model the benefits of fistula surgery as occurring through a reduction in the number of years likely to be lived with the negative effects of fistula. While living with obstetric fistula is highly detrimental to well-being, we estimate that the cost per successful surgery caused by funding a fistula charity is high, leading to relatively low cost-effectiveness.
A sketch of our calculations is below:
- Burden. Living with obstetric fistula significantly decreases well-being, and we assume the burden of fistula persists for the rest of a woman’s life, which we estimate to be 33 years.31
- Cost per surgery. We roughly estimate the cost of a fistula surgery at $1,169.32
- Cost per successful surgery caused by additional funding. Our best guess is that approximately 70% of fistula surgeries are physically successful.33 We further estimate that 75% of physically successful surgeries result in a return to normal life.34 We also guess that 15% of surgeries would have taken place in the absence of additional funding to a fistula charity.35 Taken together, these imply a cost of $2,620 per successful surgery caused by additional funding.36
- Cost per year of fistula averted. We estimate $79 per year of fistula averted.37 We compare this to other giving opportunities using our moral weights.38
We are uncertain about the effect of fistula surgery on life outcomes and highly uncertain about the moral value of averting fistula burden. Additional questions that may impact our cost-effectiveness estimate include the rate at which fistulas reopen after surgery, the rate of residual incontinence and its impact on life outcomes, and the rate of adverse effects of fistula surgery.
Is there room for more funding?
We have not investigated this question in depth. One estimate from 2013 put the number of new cases of fistula each year at over 6,000 with a large backlog of cases.39 At a rough cost estimate of $1,169 per surgery, it is plausible that the annual need is in the tens of millions of dollars per year and possibly higher. We have not attempted to estimate what portion of the need is being filled by current sources of funding.
It is plausible that funding is not the only constraint to providing more fistula surgeries, and that additional funding would therefore not necessarily lead to additional surgeries. Additionally, we expect that as fistula identification and management improves, remaining cases are increasingly the most difficult or expensive to identify and treat.
Our process
We conducted a shallow review of the evidence for the impact of fistula surgery on physical and psychosocial life outcomes and published a version of this page in 2017. A key question we had at that time was what the cost of a fistula surgery might be in a location where we might consider supporting fistula surgery.
We funded IDinsight to work with Fistula Foundation to estimate the cost of a fistula surgery in its program in Kenya. We used this estimate to update our cost-effectiveness analysis for fistula surgery; we also updated the moral weights we use to trade off between outcomes achieved through providing fistula surgeries and outcomes of programs we support, such as increases in incomes and deaths averted for young children.
In the course of learning about fistula surgery programs, we have spoken with representatives of several organizations that support fistula surgery, including Fistula Foundation, EngenderHealth, Operation Fistula, and Hamlin Fistula.40
Sources
- 1
"A gynecologic fistula refers to an abnormal communication between the urinary tract or the gastrointestinal tract and the genital tract, produced by obstetric causes, usually prolonged and obstructed labor." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 95.
- 2
"In prolonged labor, which frequently results in delivery of a stillborn, the bladder and/or rectal tissue is compressed between the pelvic bones and the fetal head, cutting off blood flow and causing ischemic pressure necrosis (Husain and others 2005). In the hours or days following such a prolonged labor, the fistula forms and leakage of urine, stool, or both appears." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 95.
- 3
"Additional major complications can include reproductive organ damage, such as uterine rupture, amenorrhea, and uterine scarring resulting in secondary infertility; dermatological conditions, resulting in excoriations and infections; neurological damage, resulting in weakness in the leg and foot drop (Arrowsmith, Hamlin, and Wall 1996); and renal damage, resulting in decreased kidney function. Women also report genital soreness; painful intercourse; constipation; and unpleasant odor, despite frequent washing and pad changes (Turan, Johnson, and Polan 2007)." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 96. Some complications listed above are complications of the obstetric event that causes the fistula, whereas others are reversible physical complications of the fistula itself.
- 4
"...the woman may be abandoned by her husband and family to live as a social outcast without the ability to earn a living (Wall and others 2002). In many cultures, the woman either blames herself or is blamed by the community for the fistula, which is seen as a mark of punishment for some wrong-doing (Johnson and others 2010). She endures social isolation, economic deprivation, and depression (Turan, Johnson, and Polan 2007; Weston and others 2011)." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 97.
- 5
- "Additional major complications can include reproductive organ damage, such as uterine rupture, amenorrhea, and uterine scarring resulting in secondary infertility; dermatological conditions, resulting in excoriations and infections; neurological damage, resulting in weakness in the leg and foot drop (Arrowsmith, Hamlin, and Wall 1996); and renal damage, resulting in decreased kidney function. Women also report genital soreness; painful intercourse; constipation; and unpleasant odor, despite frequent washing and pad changes (Turan, Johnson, and Polan 2007)." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 96. Some complications listed above are complications of the obstetric event that causes the fistula, whereas others are reversible physical complications of the fistula itself.
- See also Figure 6.1, DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 96 which lists possible consequences of “Obstructed labor injury complex” including: fetal death, fistula formation, complex urological injury, vaginal scarring and stenosis, secondary infertility, musculoskeletal injury, foot drop, chronic skin irritation, offensive odor.
- 6
"The advent of anesthesia and safe, effective surgical procedures for cesarean sections have made the occurrence of obstetric fistula a rare event in the developed world; when they do occur, they are typically due to a congenital anomaly, surgical complication, malignancy, or radiation damage." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 95.
- 7
- "Arrowsmith and colleagues coined the phrase 'obstructed labor injury complex' to encompass the extent of physical and social injury caused by fistulas." Ahmed and Holtz 2007, p. S11, referring to Arrowsmith, Hamlin, and Wall 1996.
- "The field injury that is produced by prolonged obstructed labor may result in multiple birth-related injuries in addition to (or instead of) a vesicovaginal fistula. Focusing simply on the 'hole' between the bladder and the vagina ignores the multifaceted nature of the injury that many of these patients have sustained. These injuries may include total urethral loss, stress incontinence, hydroureteronephrosis, renal failure, rectovaginal fistula formation, rectal atresia, anal sphincter incompetence, cervical destruction, amenorrhea, pelvic inflammatory disease, secondary infertility, vaginal stenosis, osteitis pubis, and foot-drop. In addition to their physical injuries, women who have experienced prolonged obstructed labor often develop serious social problems, including divorce, exclusion from religious activities, separation from their families, worsening poverty, malnutrition, and almost unendurable suffering." Arrowsmith, Hamlin, and Wall 1996, p. 568.
- 8
- "Disability weights are measured on a scale from 0 to 1, with 0 implying a state that is equivalent to full health and 1 a state equivalent to death." Salomon et al. 2015, p. e712.
- For the specific disability weights mentioned, see Salomon et al. 2015, pp. e717, e718, e720.
- 9
"The surgical approach can be vaginal, abdominal, or combined, based on the location of the fistula and the preference and experience of the surgeon. The vaginal route seems to be associated with less blood loss and pain (Chigbu and others 2006). However, the evidence on the difference in operative complications and speed of recovery is limited." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 102.
- 10
"An incision is made over the vaginal mucosa all around the fistula about 3 millimeters away from the junction of the bladder (rectum in RVF [rectovaginal fistula]) and vaginal skin (epithelium). Lateral extension of the incision, at the 3:00 and 9:00 o’clock positions, is made bilaterally. These incisions over the vaginal mucosa should be just deep enough to cut only the vaginal mucosa. The bladder (rectum in RVF) should be mobilized adequately to avoid tension on the closure of the defect.
Bladder or rectal muscle should be approximated, avoiding the bladder or rectal mucosa. The closure of bladder fistulas can be in either a single or a double layer based on individual preference. Closure of rectal fistula is preferable in two layers, to avoid rectal mucosal interposition between the sutures. In patients who had had a diverting colostomy and repair of an RVF, a dye test must be done to confirm success of repair before planning for colostomy closure." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 102.
For details of surgical technique, see the textbook "Practical Obstetric Fistula Surgery", Hancock 2009, especially Chapter 6.
- 11
"The main concern in VVF [vesicovaginal] patients in the postoperative period is the maintenance of free and continuous bladder drainage. High fluid intake is widely advised; women should be encouraged to drink four to five liters a day (Hancock 2009b) and the color of the urine should be watched as the indicator of the adequacy of hydration. A blocked catheter signals an emergency. Transurethral drainage catheters are generally kept for an average of 14 days (up to 21 days following new urethral reconstruction) and should be removed without clamping. Some suggest that postoperative catheterization for 10 days may be sufficient for less complicated cases of VVF repair (Nardos, Browning, and Member 2008). Women are advised not to resume sexual contact for three months to give adequate time for the tissues to heal." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 102.
- 12
"For women who have lived with fistula for many years, reintegration into society involves redefinition of self and transition from being identified as filthy, dependent, and unworthy to being seen as clean, feminine, and active in family and community life. Thus, reintegration into family and community life is a major adjustment and goal after surgery. This need for reintegration requires that surgical programs dedicated to fistula repair consider and implement counseling for social integration and training in life skills to help these women return to gainful employment after repair.
Most women live an agrarian lifestyle, and returning to farming is important to them. One paper identifies the most important factor helping them feel normal again is the ability to return to farming after surgical repair (Pope, Bangser, and Requejo 2011). However, most women felt that they needed more time after surgery to fully recover their strength; the authors recommend having an alternate non-labor-intensive form of income for the first year after repair before most women return to their routine work. The full reintegration of a patient postrepair should also include her sexual and reproductive health needs (Mselle and others 2012). Preoperative and postoperative counseling for 47 Eritrean fistula patients was shown to increase their self-esteem (Johnson and others 2010)." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, pp. 102-103.
- 13
"Women with bladder fistulas can sometimes be treated conservatively if the injury is recent and the hole is small. Continuous bladder drainage with Foley catheters for four to six weeks has been reported to result in the spontaneous closure of small fistulas with fresh edges in 15 percent to 20 percent of cases (Waaldijk 1994). However, the majority of VVFs [vesicovaginal fistulas] require surgical treatment." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 101.
- 14
"In some cases, the damage to the urethra and bladder is so severe that conventional repair methods are not successful. In specialized centers, these patients are sometimes offered urinary diversion in which the ureters are implanted in the lower bowel (Morgan and others 2009)." DCP3: Essential Surgery, 2015, p. 102.
- 15
- "Fistula Foundation funds patient outreach to educate communities about the condition and to help identify, refer, and transport women to life-changing treatment." Fistula Foundation Annual Report 2015, p. 4.
- "WFF [Worldwide Fistula Fund] works to identify women who need fistula treatment and transports them to surgery performed by Expert Fistula Surgeons." Worldwide Fistula Fund website, Our Programs
- "As obstetric fistula largely affects poorer, marginalized women and girls, often living in remote areas, it can be a challenge to identify them, either in health facilities or communities, and then to connect them to treatment. In 2015, UNFPA in Ethiopia supported the training of 240 health extension workers and 129 nurses, midwives and doctors in fistula case identification to strengthen referrals to surgical treatment. Other assistance helped the Ghana Health Services to develop a good practice document on fistula case identification and referral. It catalogues existing practices that have yielded promising results and will inform the establishment of a national fistula identification mechanism.
In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, UNFPA partners with local public, private and civil society entities to raise awareness on fistula and connect women to treatment. Fistula survivors who have undergone treatment help identify other women with fistula in their communities, and assist them to seek medical care. Media and community outreach campaigns spread prevention and treatment messages, and in 2015 reached an estimated 100,000 people in one province." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 44.
- 16
- "A lack of trained surgeons throughout sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia means that capacity to treat the growing backlog of fistula patients is limited. Compounding this challenge, no two fistulas are identical—it can take years of training for a single surgeon to be sufficiently prepared to treat a complex injury. To meet this need, Fistula Foundation funds a comprehensive fistula surgeon training program, directed by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO)." Fistula Foundation Annual Report 2015, p. 4.
- "At global, regional and national levels, UNFPA works with several partner organizations, such as EngenderHealth/Fistula Care Plus, Fistula Foundation, Freedom From Fistula Foundation, the International Society of Obstetric Fistula Surgeons, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and Operation Fistula to promote high-quality training in fistula surgical repair. At the national level, the MHTF endorses the training of surgeons in a standardized curriculum for fistula repair developed by the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, the International Society of Obstetric Fistula Surgeons, UNFPA, EngenderHealth, and the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 45.
- 17
"Many facilities lack even the most basic equipment. Our partners have become accustomed to working in conditions that are less than ideal, performing surgery with aging equipment, or making do with tools that may not be the most appropriate for fistula surgery. We listen and respond to the needs of our partners and help provide support that will enable them to perform surgery in the safest environment possible." Fistula Foundation Annual Report 2015, p. 4.
- 18
"In 2012, UNFPA, in partnership with expert fistula surgeons, designed kits with all the necessary instruments and medical supplies for performing surgical repairs. In 2015, the MHTF supported the procurement of 568 kits for use at health facilities in 17 countries." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 42.
- 19
For example, see Fistula Foundation Annual Report 2015, p. 5, "Fistula Foundation 2015 Partners": "The above is a list of all organizations that received 2015 grants from Fistula Foundation, and is not an exhaustive list of current partners."
- 20
"Hamlin Fistula Ethiopia directs the work of the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital, its five regional hospitals, the Hamlin College of Midwives and Desta Mender, a farm and training centre for long term patients." Hamlin Fistula Ethiopia website, About Us
- 21
- "WFF offers Recovery and Ongoing Support to women including safe places to heal, comprehensive post-operative care, meals, group and individual counseling, individual care plans and integrated physical therapy overseen by WFF’s Rehabilitation Advisory Council." Worldwide Fistula Fund website, Our Programs
- "Women are encouraged to participate in Education and Vocational Skills Training in literacy and health classes, as well as embroidery & sewing courses, handcrafting jewelry, and cooking & catering. WFF also launched the Women’s Empowerment Center in Uganda in collaboration with TERREWODE." Worldwide Fistula Fund website, Our Programs
- "The majority of MHTF-assisted countries are supporting social reintegration and the acquisition of income-generating skills critical for fistula survivors to provide for themselves and their families, and rebuild their sense of dignity and agency." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 42.
- 22
"We additionally fund research in maternal and reproductive health to assess current treatments, to uncover unmet treatment needs and to improve future care." Worldwide Fistula Fund website, Our Programs
- 23
- "WFF works to provide Expert OB-GYN Training through our enhanced OB-GYN residency training program, Mekelle Medical Education Collaboration, and our specialized Urogynecology Fellowship training program, both launched in partnership with and at Mekelle University in Ethiopia.
WFF funds Community Health Advocate Training where community members are trained in fistula awareness and risk factors and to encourage local families to give birth in health centers." Worldwide Fistula Fund website, Our Programs - "Preventing Fistula
- Upgrading emergency obstetric care to prevent obstetric fistula
- Increasing awareness at the community level about fistula prevention and the importance of maternal health care
- Improving access to family planning
- Advocating policy changes that tackle the root causes of obstetric fistula, such as delays in accessing emergency obstetric care
- Promoting gender equity and reducing violence against women" EngenderHealth website, Fistula
- "Through the MHTF, UNFPA and the Campaign to End Fistula are strengthening prevention by educating women, families and communities on the importance of delivering with a skilled birth attendant. Sensitizing community leaders and health workers, including midwives, on the risk of developing fistula and its causes is a key component of connecting women to skilled care during pregnancy and delivery." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 44.
- "UNFPA advocates for fistula-affected countries to develop costed, time-bound national strategies and action plans for eliminating the condition. By the end of 2015, 15 MHTF-supported countries had national strategies in place. Nine had costed operational plans." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 42.
- "UNFPA helps countries in establishing and successfully operating national task forces for eliminating fistula. In 2015, 28 MHTF-assisted countries had these task forces." UNFPA MHTF Annual Report 2015, p. 42.
- "WFF works to provide Expert OB-GYN Training through our enhanced OB-GYN residency training program, Mekelle Medical Education Collaboration, and our specialized Urogynecology Fellowship training program, both launched in partnership with and at Mekelle University in Ethiopia.
- 24
"As qualified surgeons submitted patient records, we paid out grants directly to them and gave them the flexibility to use the money at their discretion. We piloted this concept in Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritania and Zambia. This pilot program treated 752 women, exceeding all targets, driving quality and capacity-expansion, and delivering unprecedented cost-effectiveness in line with vaccines." Operation Fistula website, Pay-for-Performance to the Point-of-Care
- 25
"We developed GOFER to improve the accuracy and reliability of data collection and enable a collaborative effort to improve the quality of fistula care globally.
Our vision for GOFER begins by using the platform to unite and improve the fistula sector. With wide adoption, GOFER will introduce visibility into quality of care, improve outcomes of surgery and expand the impact of funding.
We aim to have over 50% of annual spending on fistula care committed to using GOFER by the end of 2016." Operation Fistula website, GOFER
- 26
We rely on Arrowsmith, Barone, and Ruminjo 2013, the most recent meta-analysis of fistula surgery outcomes that we identified. "The authors reviewed 46 published articles that addressed outcomes in fistula care. Most articles were published between 2006 and 2013." (p. 399) Surgical outcomes in studies identified in this review are not necessarily representative of outcomes of surgeries supported by organizations that GiveWell may evaluate. As part of an evaluation of a fistula organization, we would examine monitoring of patient outcomes, including physical outcomes at discharge and other outcomes if available.
- "The question of continence versus closure has important implications. There are major differences between the expected rates of fistula closure and continence after fistula repair. In the studies reviewed here, closure rates ranged from a low of 53.6% to a high of 97.5%, with most closure rates above 85% and an average of 86%. By contrast, rates of dryness (i.e., no incontinence remaining after closure) are much lower, spanning from 42 to 92%, with most between 50 and 80% and averaging 70%." Arrowsmith, Barone, and Ruminjo 2013, p. 400.
- The authors emphasize a lack of standardized outcome metrics in fistula surgery: "To advance, the fistula care field needs to establish standardized outcome definitions. Professional bodies like the International Continence Society have proven that standardized terminology in other clinical areas related to continence is possible. Routine outcome measurement is essential to maintain quality of care. In addition, reporting on outcomes is unavoidable when considering an individual site’s funding, accreditation, and governmental permission to practice. Commonly agreed upon definitions and outcome measures will help ensure that site reviews are accurate and conducted fairly. To compare technical innovations with existing methods, the field must agree on definitions of success. Furthermore, standardized indicators for mortality and morbidity associated with repair can help improve the evidence base and contribute to quality of care." Arrowsmith, Barone, and Ruminjo 2013, p. 402.
- 27
Lombard et al. 2015, a literature review, found ten primary qualitative studies of rehabilitation experiences of women in sub-Saharan Africa following obstetric fistula repair, all between 2003-2011.
- "Many women may remain amenorrhoeic, experience intrauterine and/or vaginal scarring and cervical damage that may be associated with pelvic inflammatory disease. Few studies are available on women’s quality of life or their needs post-repair, which would be useful in planning effective interventions and care." p. 555.
- "All ten included studies were conducted in sub-Saharan Africa: three in Tanzania, two in Eritrea, one in Kenya, one in Benin, one in Malawi, one in Ethiopia and one across 20 countries. All research took place in clinical facilities: seven in a rural setting, one in an urban setting and two in mixed settings. Five studies used a mixed-methods approach, whereas the other five used only qualitative methods. The length of research across all studies ranged from 2 months to 2 years between 2003 and 2011. All included studies related to the same target population: rural women affected by fistula (five studies), women and families (four studies) and women, key informants and experts in the field (one study).
Most studies used semi-structured interviews as a data collection tool with an average participant population of n = 29 (range 8–61). The average age of women included in the research was 31 years, while the average age at fistula was 24 years. The duration of fistula ranged from 3 months to 30 years." pp. 556-557. - There is some indication that surgery ameliorates the social effects of fistula even when it does not eliminate the physical effects: "In this review, we were unable to identify the relationship between continence status post-repair and rehabilitation experiences and recommendations due to the qualitative nature of the included studies. Research has shown that a woman who is closed and dry post-repair vs. one who is still incontinent is more likely to live with her husband, eat with others, earn money and attend community gatherings. However, women who are still incontinent demonstrate high percentages of meeting their own needs (75%), ability to work (66%) and staying married (61%). These positive outcomes extend to their families as one sister said: ‘I am very much happy because she wasn’t going to the mosque, was not able to fast during Ramadan, but she is now able to do all that. She is now able to chat with her friends’. Interestingly, for affected women, the surgical repair experience appears to be characterised by a shift in social status rather than physical recovery. Simply receiving the repair can be a positive intervention and even women with only partially successful repairs report improved quality of life. We cannot be sure, however, that these findings would be true for all women with residual incontinence." p. 564.
- 28
- IDInsight has estimated the total cost of identifying and treating a fistula patient through Fistula Foundation's Action on Fistula (AOF) program in Kenya. To do so, it used annual financial statements for the first phase of the AOF program (May 2014-April 2017) and annual projections for the second phase of the program (May 2017-April 2020). This figure includes both the direct costs of the program (community outreach, fistula surgery, and reintegration) and the indirect costs (e.g., doctor and nurse training, program management, administration). IDinsight, Fistula Foundation's Action on Fistula program, 2017, slide 8.
- A small amount of additional cost data of uncertain quality seems to support this estimate as well. For example: "HFE has estimated the cost per standard repair procedure at the main hospital and Bahir Dar Outreach Centre to range from US$755 to US$1,474 depending on location and severity of the case." AusAID/USAID Review of Support to Hamlin Fistula Ethiopia 2013, p. xiii.
- 29
See this grant page.
- 30
See our preliminary cost-effectiveness estimate for surgery to treat obstetric fistula here: GiveWell, Fistula Foundation CEA, June 2021, "Fistula Foundation vs. Cash (best guess)." As of the writing of this page, we are primarily looking to recommend grants that we estimate are 8 or more times as cost-effective as GiveDirectly's unconditional cash transfer program, and are willing to consider recommending a limited amount of funding to grants that are between 5 and 8 times as cost-effective as GiveDirectly. For an example of the cost-effectiveness of our recommendations, see this page.
- 31
See our calculations and the sources on which they are based here.
- 32
- IDInsight has estimated the total cost of identifying and treating a fistula patient through Fistula Foundation's Action on Fistula (AOF) program in Kenya. To do so, it used annual financial statements for the first phase of the AOF program (May 2014-April 2017) and annual projections for the second phase of the program (May 2017-April 2020). This figure includes both the direct costs of the program (community outreach, fistula surgery, and reintegration) and the indirect costs (e.g., doctor and nurse training, program management, administration).
- "Total costs per fistula treatment $ 1,169." IDinsight, Fistula Foundation's Action on Fistula program, 2017, slide 8.
- 33
"The question of continence versus closure has important implications. There are major differences between the expected rates of fistula closure and continence after fistula repair. In the studies reviewed here, closure rates ranged from a low of 53.6% to a high of 97.5%, with most closure rates above 85% and an average of 86%. By contrast, rates of dryness (i.e., no incontinence remaining after closure) are much lower, spanning from 42 to 92%, with most between 50 and 80% and averaging 70%." Arrowsmith, Barone, and Ruminjo 2013, p. 400.
- 34
It is possible that a woman continues to suffer psychological or social costs that prevent her from returning to her normal quality of life, even if a surgery leads to long-term continence. For example, a continent woman may still struggle to reintegrate with society, or may suffer depression (particularly if obstructed labor led to the loss of her child). We have not investigated likely values of this parameter. This value could change considerably after further investigation.
Some weak evidence suggests that psychosocial life outcomes may not be entirely dependent on the physical outcome of the surgery. For example, Lombard et al. 2015, a literature review, found ten primary qualitative studies of rehabilitation experiences of women in sub-Saharan Africa following obstetric fistula repair, all between 2003 and 2011.
- "Many women may remain amenorrhoeic, experience intrauterine and/or vaginal scarring and cervical damage that may be associated with pelvic inflammatory disease. Few studies are available on women’s quality of life or their needs post-repair, which would be useful in planning effective interventions and care." p. 555.
- "All ten included studies were conducted in sub-Saharan Africa: three in Tanzania, two in Eritrea, one in Kenya, one in Benin, one in Malawi, one in Ethiopia and one across 20 countries. All research took place in clinical facilities: seven in a rural setting, one in an urban setting and two in mixed settings. Five studies used a mixed-methods approach, whereas the other five used only qualitative methods. The length of research across all studies ranged from 2 months to 2 years between 2003 and 2011. All included studies related to the same target population: rural women affected by fistula (five studies), women and families (four studies) and women, key informants and experts in the field (one study).
Most studies used semi-structured interviews as a data collection tool with an average participant population of n = 29 (range 8–61). The average age of women included in the research was 31 years, while the average age at fistula was 24 years. The duration of fistula ranged from 3 months to 30 years." pp. 556-557. - There is some indication that surgery ameliorates the social effects of fistula even when it does not eliminate the physical effects: "In this review, we were unable to identify the relationship between continence status post-repair and rehabilitation experiences and recommendations due to the qualitative nature of the included studies. Research has shown that a woman who is closed and dry post-repair vs. one who is still incontinent is more likely to live with her husband, eat with others, earn money and attend community gatherings. However, women who are still incontinent demonstrate high percentages of meeting their own needs (75%), ability to work (66%) and staying married (61%). These positive outcomes extend to their families as one sister said: ‘I am very much happy because she wasn’t going to the mosque, was not able to fast during Ramadan, but she is now able to do all that. She is now able to chat with her friends’. Interestingly, for affected women, the surgical repair experience appears to be characterised by a shift in social status rather than physical recovery. Simply receiving the repair can be a positive intervention and even women with only partially successful repairs report improved quality of life. We cannot be sure, however, that these findings would be true for all women with residual incontinence." p. 564.
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We have not yet done detailed research to inform this parameter. Based on the limited evidence we have seen, our understanding is that the facilities supported by the AOF program in Kenya may sometimes have overlapping target populations with other facilities that may have provided more fistula surgeries in the absence of AOF's program. It therefore seems like there is some potential for crowding out to occur. This value is a placeholder based on the idea that we'd expect a relatively small amount of crowding out, since our understanding is that fistula surgery is a relatively neglected cause.
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$1,169 per surgery / 70% continence upon discharge / 75% return to normal life / 85% of surgeries that would not have been performed in Fistula Foundation's absence = $2,620. See GiveWell, Fistula Foundation CEA, June 2021, "Total cost per patient relative to counterfactual."
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This is based on the cost of $2,620 per successful surgery caused by additional funding divided by 33, which is the number of years with fistula averted following the surgery: $2,620 per surgery / 33 years = $79 per year of fistula averted.
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See GiveWell, Fistula Foundation CEA, June 2021, "Results."
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"Overall, we estimate that just over one million women may have a fistula in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, and that there are over 6000 new cases per year in these two world regions." Adler et al. 2013 Prevalence Review, p. 9. See also Adler et al. 2013 Key Informant Method.
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See the following:
- GiveWell's non-verbatim summary of a conversation with Operation Fistula, May 3, 2016
- GiveWell's non-verbatim summary of a conversation with Fistula Foundation, February 16, 2018
- GiveWell's non-verbatim summary of a conversation with EngenderHealth, May 15, 2019
We have not made notes from our other conversations available.